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#Mobility

Transport on Demand: How to regulate ride-hailing in the EU?

  • December 1, 2021
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Report | Transport on Demand: How to regulate ride-hailing in the EU?

Effectively addressing urban mobility at EU level raises many challenges and opportunities for the sector. Urban transport on demand (ToD) – also called ride-hailing – is so far relatively untouched by EU regulation. This has led to a mismatch in the vast array of rules applicable to ToD and other modes of transport, and instead regulation is managed at national or local level.

Following the major initiatives and strategies adopted by the EU such as the Green Deal, the Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy, the Fit for 55 Package, and the upcoming EU Urban Mobility Framework, EU regulation in this area is of pressing importance for the future of mobility.

This CERRE report, ‘Transport on Demand: How to regulate ride-hailing in the EU?’, looks into the evolution of ToD over the last decade, discusses the differences and similarities between different forms of transport, and identifies regulatory vacuums and propose ways to remedy issues in order to enhance EU urban mobility.

Academic co-authors Vassilis Hatzopoulos and Enguerrand Marique also look at nine EU Member States in order to analyse the diverse measures have been undertaken at national or local level: some have responded positively to the new needs of ToD trying to adjust and simplify their regulatory environments (Croatia, Estonia, Finland, Poland); others have been more reluctant to do so, or have done so in a more modest way (Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Italy); while one Member State (Germany) has veered towards more complex rules than before.

“EU intervention is now key considering the rapid emergence of ride-hailing apps and other shared mobility means and the divergent ways in which these have been dealt with at national and local level. There is also a pressing need to reassess passenger mobility as a whole, in view of better serving cities and meeting the EU’s ambitious climate goals.” Prof. Vassilis Hatzopoulos, co-author of the report.

Thinking about regulation

The main recommendations drawn by the authors when it comes to the regulation of ride-hailing are that:

  • hard law could take the form of a directive of minimal harmonisation, leaving place for co-regulation;
  • self-regulation could be streamlined by means of hard or soft law;
  • any regulation effort should focus on the three parties involved: platforms; passengers; and transport companies and drivers;
  • a directive should encompass elements such as establishing minimum rules and conditions for the delivery of permits (allowing for the principle of mutual recognition), banning restrictive operational rules, setting environmental and safety standards, and capping driving times for driver and passenger safety; and
  • soft law instruments are needed to complement a directive and that provide guidance on criteria which would allow for platform self-assessment of its legal situation as a digital or ride-hailing intermediary; the creation of uniform, transparent, and standardized reputation rating and ranking instruments; and the update and adaptation of the EU Passenger Rights Bill to the ToD industry.

“Securing a level playing field in the urban transport mobility sector is critical for the Internal Market, and can only happen at EU level. It’s a challenging situation as soft guidance must be complemented by additional binding rules to achieve more efficient and sustainable urban transport. Yet, at the same time, the importance of national and local particularities should be acknowledged.” Prof. Enguerrand Marique, co-author of the report.

Join us on Monday 6 December at 15:30 CET for an open discussion on  transport on demand in the EU, and what type of regulatory interventions might be required to tackle urban mobility challenges. Co-authors Vassilis Hatzopoulos and Enguerrand Marique will present the study, followed by a discussion with representatives from both traditional and new forms of mobility, clean transport campaigners, and European local and regional authorities.

Author(s)
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Vassilis Hatzopoulos
Vassilis Hatzopoulos
Full Professor of EU Law and Policies
Panteion University

Vassilis Hatzopoulos is a full Professor of EU Law and Policies at the Panteion University, Athens. Previously he was a professor at the Democritus University of Thrace, where he also served as Chair of his Department, then Dean of his School. He is a visiting Professor at the College of Europe, Bruges (Belgium).

His research interests cover EU institutional law and governance, the EU internal market with special focus on service liberalisation and the provision of services of general economic interest, state aid and public procurement, as well as EU asylum and immigration law. He has published five monographs, on the principle of mutual recognition in the internal market (in French, Bruylant/Sakkoulas, 1999), on domain names (in Greek, Nomiki Vivliothiki, 2001, with V, Tountopoulos), on the doctrine of essential facilities under EU competition law (in Greek, Sakkoulas, 2002), on the regulation of services in the EU (in English, OUP, 2012) and on the collaborative economy and EU law (in English, Hart, 2018). He has also published over a hundred articles and case notes, in English, French and Greek, in all the major EU-related reviews and periodicals and in edited volumes. His long-standing interest on services translates into dozens of articles as well as several consultations, both institutional and private, in this area.

He has a longstanding experience as a lawyer, practicing before the highest national courts and the Court of Justice of the EU. He has consulted i.a. the Greek Government (on the OECD-led regulatory reform and the Lisbon Strategy benchmarking), the EU Commission (on the Services Directive) and the European Parliament (on EU patients’ rights). Lately his research interests turn around the sharing economy and the EU preferential trade agreements (CETA, TiSA etc).

Vassilis Hatzopoulos is a full Professor of EU Law and Policies at the Panteion University, Athens. Previously he was a professor at the Democritus University of Thrace, where he also served as Chair of his Department, then Dean of his School. He is a visiting Professor at the College of Europe, Bruges (Belgium).

His research interests cover EU institutional law and governance, the EU internal market with special focus on service liberalisation and the provision of services of general economic interest, state aid and public procurement, as well as EU asylum and immigration law. He has published five monographs, on the principle of mutual recognition in the internal market (in French, Bruylant/Sakkoulas, 1999), on domain names (in Greek, Nomiki Vivliothiki, 2001, with V, Tountopoulos), on the doctrine of essential facilities under EU competition law (in Greek, Sakkoulas, 2002), on the regulation of services in the EU (in English, OUP, 2012) and on the collaborative economy and EU law (in English, Hart, 2018). He has also published over a hundred articles and case notes, in English, French and Greek, in all the major EU-related reviews and periodicals and in edited volumes. His long-standing interest on services translates into dozens of articles as well as several consultations, both institutional and private, in this area.

He has a longstanding experience as a lawyer, practicing before the highest national courts and the Court of Justice of the EU. He has consulted i.a. the Greek Government (on the OECD-led regulatory reform and the Lisbon Strategy benchmarking), the EU Commission (on the Services Directive) and the European Parliament (on EU patients’ rights). Lately his research interests turn around the sharing economy and the EU preferential trade agreements (CETA, TiSA etc).

Enguerrand Marique
Enguerrand Marique
Associate Professor
Université catholique de Lille

Dr. Enguerrand Marique is currently an associate professor at the Université catholique de Lille (FR) and guest lecturer at UCLouvain (BE). He teaches business law and new technology law. After completing a master’s degree in law at UCLouvain and an additional master’s degree in international commercial law in California, in 2021 Dr. Enguerrand Marique defended a thesis on digital platform law entitled “Building Trust in Digital Platforms via legal tools: new roles and new responsabilities for public authorities and private entities”.

From 2020 to 2025, dr. Enguerrand Marique was universitair docent at Radboud University (NL), where he taught digital single market law and dispute resolution in a digital environment.

His research focuses mostly on the regulation of digital technologies, particularly in cases where their civil applications adversely affect citizens’ or consumers’ trust (in the technology deployer). He is interested in how governance mechanisms can be innovatively designed to rebuild and sustain this trust, especially in environments where transparency and accountability are at stake (data, platforms and AI). This includes examining the role of EU regulatory frameworks in mitigating the erosion of trust and ensuring that digital technologies are deployed in ways that respect ethical principles and reinforce public confidence.

Another strand of his research focuses on digital sovereignty and the critical role public authorities play in fostering a distinctly European digital ecosystem. He explores how regulatory and policy measures can strengthen Europe’s autonomy in the digital realm while balancing innovation, competition, and ethical considerations. This includes examining the interplay between digital sovereignty and global digital governance, highlighting how European public authorities can shape frameworks that safeguard European values and promote trust in a connected world.

Dr. Enguerrand Marique is currently an associate professor at the Université catholique de Lille (FR) and guest lecturer at UCLouvain (BE). He teaches business law and new technology law. After completing a master’s degree in law at UCLouvain and an additional master’s degree in international commercial law in California, in 2021 Dr. Enguerrand Marique defended a thesis on digital platform law entitled “Building Trust in Digital Platforms via legal tools: new roles and new responsabilities for public authorities and private entities”.

From 2020 to 2025, dr. Enguerrand Marique was universitair docent at Radboud University (NL), where he taught digital single market law and dispute resolution in a digital environment.

His research focuses mostly on the regulation of digital technologies, particularly in cases where their civil applications adversely affect citizens’ or consumers’ trust (in the technology deployer). He is interested in how governance mechanisms can be innovatively designed to rebuild and sustain this trust, especially in environments where transparency and accountability are at stake (data, platforms and AI). This includes examining the role of EU regulatory frameworks in mitigating the erosion of trust and ensuring that digital technologies are deployed in ways that respect ethical principles and reinforce public confidence.

Another strand of his research focuses on digital sovereignty and the critical role public authorities play in fostering a distinctly European digital ecosystem. He explores how regulatory and policy measures can strengthen Europe’s autonomy in the digital realm while balancing innovation, competition, and ethical considerations. This includes examining the interplay between digital sovereignty and global digital governance, highlighting how European public authorities can shape frameworks that safeguard European values and promote trust in a connected world.

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Mobility as a Service (MaaS) : Une feuille de route digitale pour les autorités organisatrices
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Mobility as a Service (MaaS): A digital roadmap for public transport authorities
14 January 2021
Mobility ambitions for Europe 2024
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Shared mobility and MaaS – Regulatory challenges of urban mobility
19 September 2019
Régulation de la mobilité urbaine à l’épreuve de la mobilité partagée
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The future of rail: regulation & competition for an innovative industry
6 February 2019
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16 May 2018
Liberalisation of passenger rail services
7 December 2016

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